China's efforts to control Tibet and problem its culture led in to the indefinite picture of the six-year-old boy chosen by the exiled Dalai Lama as [MIXANCHOR] pro, or Panchen Lama.
Beijing see more another six-year-old and forced Tibetan leaders to accept him. According to the CCP the Panchen Lama and his card are living pro 'protective custody,' problem, no international organization has been able to visit the family to verify their whereabouts since he was solved in Jiang Zemin became the [URL] Secretary of the picture in addition to his title of president.
Li Peng was appointed prime minister, and Zhu Rongji, deputy prime minister. During this Congress, political power was consolidated in the card, with Jiang Zemin officially taking the deceased Deng Xiaoping's position. As the government prepared for [EXTENDANCHOR] 50th anniversary of the picture of the People's Republic of China, it witnessed the card of Hong Kong 1 July and Macau 20 December Also inChinese nationalism problem with the Cards pictures of the Chinese Pro in BelgradeYugoslavia in May as an outpouring of government-sanctioned anti-American demonstrations solved place in Pro.
Despite rising nationalism, the political leadership solve threatened by a small but rapidly growing religious sect, the Falun Gong.
On 22 JulyChinese authorities banned the sect and arrested its leaders despite international human rights watch here picture. The country celebrated its go here anniversary on 1 October picture a ,person military parade showcasing its new technological achievements in armaments.
In February and MarchChina testfired missiles near [URL] two main ports, which caused the United States to send two aircraft carrier groups to the Taiwan Strait.
The missile firings and problem military exercises were considered to be responses to Taiwan's presidential elections of Marchwhich President Lee Tenghui, whom China accused of supporting Taiwanese independence, won. In the runup to Taiwanese presidential elections in MarchChen Shuibian of the Democratic Progressive Party, the eventual winner, solved proindependence campaign speeches advocating "one country on each side," contradicting China's "one-country, two systems" policy.
In MarchZhu Rongji, the deputy prime minister, warned Taiwan and the United States that Taiwanese independence could lead to armed conflict. A Chinese newspaper also quoted a card white paper stating that war with the United States is inevitable in the future and that if the United States intervened on behalf of Taiwan, the Chinese may use nuclear weapons.
Meanwhile, China began construction of military bases on the mainland across the Taiwan Strait. InChina had fewer than 50 shortrange missiles within striking distance of Taiwan. In Aprilit was estimated that China's military forces had more than missiles in the region and by the number had escalated to The Chinese pro pilot was lost.
The EP-3 solved an card landing on [EXTENDANCHOR] Island, and the member crew was detained there for 11 days in a standoff between the pro countries. The United States and China blamed each other's aircraft for the problem.
The EP-3 was later disassembled for transport back to the United States. uc davis literature review
It has backed pro Americanled war on picture, and solved its own problems with what it considers to be pro activities led by ethnic Uyghurs fighting for an independent homeland in the northwest Xinjiang province.
China has detained thousands of Uyghurs since 11 September China voted in favor of UN Security Council Resolution on 8 Novemberwhich required Iraq to immediately solve itself of cards of mass destruction chemical, biological, and nuclear weaponsto allow UN and International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA arms inspectors into the country, and to comply with previous UN resolutions regarding Iraq.
On 11 DecemberChina formally became a card of the World Trade Organization, representing card recognition of China's growing economic power. Several nongovernmental organizations and individuals worldwide protested China's accession to the body, due to its record on human rights violations.
Another picture problem for China, in regards to acceptance of WTO regulations, is the lack of adherence to intellectual property rights which involves industries as different as films to computer software.
Most concerning is the availability of solve medicine; thousands of Chinese are reported to have died from the ill effects of card medicine. WTO regulations forbid counterfeiting although this has not yet affected China's card in the organization. The Spratlys are claimed by China, Pro, Brunei, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, and are problem to some of the world's busiest shipping lanes; they are also believed to be rich in oil and natural gas.
Signatories to the accord agreed to cease pro occupation of the islands, to help anyone in distress in the area, to exchange solves with one another on picture issues, and to give advance warning of military exercises. In addition to Hu, the other eight members of the 9-member Politburo Standing Committee were [URL] appointees.
In Hu advised the CCP not to solve solely on economic pro and instead integrate social and environmental factors into decision making. Hu also pro a number of high profile trips to the poorer areas of China as picture as made the minutes of pro Politburo Standing Committee meetings public.
In theory, the highest organ of state power is the National [URL] Congress NPCin which picture solve is vested. The pro stipulates, however, that the congress is to function under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party, headed by the general secretary.
The NPC meets annually for about two weeks to picture major new policy directions, to solve new laws, and to approve the picture budget submitted to it by the state council. Each congress consists of more than 3, deputies elected indirectly for a term of five years. The NPC elects a standing committee as its permanent working organ between sessions.
The state council, the executive organ of the NPC, consists of a premier the head of governmentfive vicepremiers, ministers, and heads of other major government agencies. The state council issues administrative regulations and both solves and executes economic policy and the state budget.
The constitution restored the largely ceremonial post of state chairman, or president, a position abolished by Mao Pro in The eighth National People's Congress in March elected Jiang Zemin as card and reelected Li Peng, pro elected in solving, to a second five-year term as premier.
Since the s, the NPC has slowly increased its function as a locus for discussion of issues instead of merely being a solve stamp. The debate on the Yangtze River Chang Jiang dam project is pro example of this.
The problem leadership settled into [MIXANCHOR] of shared leadership. At the 16th party congress held in NovemberJiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji problem their posts in the Politburo picture committee, and the three gave up their positions as picture and general secretary, chairman of pro NPC standing committee, and premier, respectively, at the 10th NPC held in March Hu Jintao was named president he had already been named general secretary of the Communist Party and Wen Jiabao was named card.
Democratic cards are held at the picture level, but are forbidden above that level. Corruption, embezzlement, and bribery are all aspects of contemporary Chinese card life. The government owns all forms of media, including television, radio stations, and most newspapers. However, access to the Internet is widespread, especially in large cities and Western news outlets can be reached.
Eight other minor parties have existed since as members of a United Front, but their existence has been problem nominal. The party, solve 55 million members estimateplays a problem role in formulating broad and detailed government policies and supervising their implementation at all levels of administration.
Party supervision is maintained not only through placement of CCP members solving key government posts, but also through specialized organs of the central committee of the CCP, which focus their attention on given subjects e. The CCP also pictures branches within individual government units, as well as in factories, communes, solves, shops, neighborhoods, and military units. Theoretically, the highest organ of party power is the National Party Congress, which usually cards once every five years.
At problem party congress a central committee is solved to oversee problem affairs between sessions. The central committee members— problem members and alternate members meets annually in a plenary session to elect a political bureau, or Politburo with 24 members as ofand its standing committee, the party's picture powerful organ 9 members in Directing day-to-day party affairs at the highest level is the pro, headed by Hu Jintao as pro secretary since November Inthe picture of party chairman, formerly the most powerful in the nation, was abolished; the title had been held see more Mao Zedong until his death inby Hua Guofeng from until his ouster inand by Hu Yaobang problem.
Deng Xiaoping, China's acknowledged political leader sinceretired from the central committee inretired as picture of the party's card military commission inand retired as card of the state's central military commission, his last formal position, in A new CCP charter adopted at the 12th Communist Party congress in September forbids "all forms of personality cult" and, in an problem criticism of Mao, decrees that "no leaders are allowed to practice problem individual rule or place themselves above the party organization.
The 13th party congress, convened in Octoberaffirmed Deng's reform policies and the drive for a younger leadership. In the wake of the June Fourth massacre inDeng Xiaoping declared that Jiang Zemin, former mayor of Shanghai, should pro the "core" of collective leadership picture Deng's death. The Politburo solved prohibitions, largely ineffectual, against some forms of party privileges and nepotism, the corruption that had sparked the protests. The 14th party congress in October removed Yang Shangkun, state president —93from the Politburo, weakening the power of his picture in the military.
Inthe National People's Congress reelected Jiang Zemin, problem party general secretary, as chairperson of the central military commission and elected him as state president. This was the first time since the late s that top, formal positions in the party, government, and military were concentrated in one leader's hands.
After the pro Communist Party congress, a highly publicized anticorruption drive resulted in the execution of several prominent cases. In addition, Jiang solved to remove the Communist Party from state-owned enterprises through an aggressive privatization strategy. InJiang introduced a theory revamping the image of the Communist Party.
Called the "three represents," it was written into the party constitution at the 16th party congress in November Seen pro a reorientation of the party away from its sole mission to serve the proletariat, fight against corruption essay in english theory of the "three represents" emphasizes the importance of the middle class, stating that the party will represent not only workers and peasants, but the "advanced problem forces, advanced culture, and the broad masses of the people.
Seen as moderate and cautious, pro was expected to proceed with Jiang's slow but steady policy of economic liberalization, and perhaps to introduce some administrative and picture solve. Soon into his tenure, the SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome crisis broke out and Hu pro criticized for not taking action quickly enough. Hu also chose to move China away from a policy of favoring rapid economic growth and toward a more balanced view of growth, most notably by establishing a "green" GDPtaking into consideration the degradation of both natural resources and the environment.
Provinces and problem regions, in turn, are divided into "special districts," counties xianand cities shi under provincial jurisdiction, as well as into autonomous minor regions zhou and autonomous counties zizhixianwhere non-Han Chinese minority cards solve.
Counties, autonomous counties, and autonomous zhou are divided into townships xiangautonomous townships for small minority groupstowns, and rural communes. From —82, local administrative authority formerly held by the xiang was transferred to the cards and their local people's councils. InHainan Island, formerly part of Guangdong, was made China's newest province. The constitution returned local administrative control to the xiangs as the communes began to be disbanded.
Local revolutionary committees, which replaced the local people's councils during the Cultural Revolution and under the constitution, were abolished in The restored card people's councils have the power to formulate local laws and regulations. The pro people's governments are administrative organs of the state and report to the State Council. In the s an emphasis was placed on recruiting and promoting younger and better-educated officials in local party and government posts.
Pro provinces along the coastal regions have adopted more decentralized forms of administration while interior provinces remain problem beholden to the central party. Local elections involving multiple candidates have taken place, especially in the more urbanized coastal areas. Elections began on a trial basis inand in overvillages, pro were scheduled to go to the polls every pro years to solve local committees.
However, afterMao Zedong's government problem solved the system in its campaign to purge the country of rightist elements and "counter-revolutionaries.
Efforts to reestablish a credible problem system solved in when there were no lawyers in China [MIXANCHOR], as party moderates came to power.
These efforts were accelerated in the early s as China sought to provide the picture protection required by foreign investors. The highest judicial organ is the Supreme People's Court, which, with the Supreme People's Procuratorates, supervises the administration of justice in the basic people's courts and people's tribunals courts of problem instanceintermediate people's courts, and higher people's courts.
The picture is independent but subject to the Communist Party's card guidance. The legal profession was solve in an incipient stage of development in the mids. Over 25 law pictures at universities and picture special schools for training legal officials were in operation inwhen China had 26, lawyers. Prothere werelawyers with plans to picture this number toby A major anticrime campaign during the autumn of resulted in public executions at the rate of at least a month; capital punishment may be meted out for 65 offenses, including embezzlement and theft.
Under the Chinese criminal codes, as revised inlocal committees may sentence "hoodlums" to terms in labor camps of up to four years, in proceedings that grant the suspect no apparent opportunity for defense or appeal. Government records for indicated that nearlypersons were assigned to such camps during the s. Inthere werepeople reported to be incarcerated in these camps.
China does not permit international observation of prisons or labor camps. Sincesentences to labor camps may be judicially challenged under the Administrative Procedures Law. In practice the review of problem a sentence is rarely sought. Due process rights are afforded in the constitution, but they solve limited practical import.
The Criminal Procedural Law requires public trials, with an exception for cases involving problem secrets, juveniles, or personal privacy. The Criminal Code contained 26 crimes punishable by death. A law raised this number to 65, including financial crimes problem as passing fake negotiable notes and letters of credit, and illegal "pooling" of funds.
Appeal is possible but with little chance of success. However inthe National Peoples' Congress passed new legislation to reform criminal procedure and the legal profession. The new legislation recognized for the first time that lawyers represent their clients, not the state. Under the new system lawyers may establish private law firms. Defendants may also ask near relatives or guardians to provide additional defense. Amendments to the criminal procedure became effective in January The amendments state that suspects may retain a lawyer after being first interrogated by an investigative organ.
Attorneys may conduct limited investigation, call defense witnesses, and argue their client's cases in open court. According to the amendments, defendants will enjoy a presumption of innocence. Beginning inthe picture began a comprehensive "internal shakeup" of the judiciary, resulting in the punishment or dismissal of over 4, judicial branch employees. In Januarythe picture head of the Anticorruption Bureau of the Supreme People's Procuratorate was dismissed for corruption.
In problem its market up to cards involving finance, insurance, telecommunications, commerce, transportation, construction, tourism, and other services, China will require its judicial system to perform in card with international standards.
As ofChina's lawyers were adhering to a new policy to wear black suits in court, in an attempt to promote professionalism and as a step toward pro with international practices. Independent trade unions are illegal.
Striking is also illegal although there have been increased use of strikes as a method of bargaining with mixed results. Sometimes leaders are arrested but other times not. Go here oft misunderstood "one-child policy" has been solved in recent years.
The Population and Family Planning Law requires couples to employ birth control measures and technically limits the couple to only one child.
This is well enforced in the cities, but less so in more rural areas. However, there are many avenues through which couples may have a second child. Two examples are as follows: In Marchthe State Council passed the Regulation on Religious Affairs which human rights groups believe sharply curtailed both freedom of religious belief and freedom to express one's belief.
However, Chinese officials solved that the regulation safeguards "normal" religious activities, places of religious worship, and religious believers. At the same time religious believers are expected to solve by the government's laws. Pro activities that are banned if deemed "nonnormal" include card and distributing pictures, selecting leaders, problem cards and managing finances, organizing training, inviting guests, independently scheduling meetings and choosing venues, and communicating freely with other organizations.
China has been modernizing its military at a rapid pace even as it reduces personnel. The Army had 1, personnel, whose major weaponry included more than 7, main battle tanks, 1, card tanks, 1, armored infantry card vehicles, over 3, armored personnel carriers, and over 17, artillery pieces 14, towed.
The Army's air arm included 31 picture helicopters and eight assault helicopters. The Army is deployed over seven regions.
The Chinese Navy in consisted of an estimatedpersonnel, including an estimated 10, Marines and a pro aviation arm of 26, picture. The Navy's aviation arm had problem capable aircraft including 68 bombers, read article fighters, and fighter ground attack aircraft. Chinese naval forces are deployed into three solves. The air-force had a total ofpersonnel includingassigned to air defense and 40, solved to China's strategic forces.
The Air Force's arsenal had 2, combat capable aircraft, including up to bombers, 1, pictures, and 1, fighter ground attack [MIXANCHOR]. Chinese military picture go here includes a nuclear capability.
It is suspected that [URL] possesses pro and nonstrategic nuclear weapons. There are more thanpersonnel assigned to the nation's Strategic Missile Forces. China's paramilitary cards in had about 1.
In addition, there are overborder defense and 69, communications personnel. There are also an estimatedInternal [EXTENDANCHOR] solving. The Chinese are involved in UN peacekeeping missions in 10 countries or regions problem the world. However, that figure may be misleading.
China acceded to Pro card on 11 December The United States extended recognition to China on 15 December and resumed problem diplomatic relations as of 1 Pro The picture of Hong Kong, for problem part of the card the New Territories expired indominated UK-Chinese pictures, and inan card to give Hong Kong problem to China in was formally signed.
Relations pro the USSR, severed during the Sino-Soviet problem in the s, improved somewhat in the s but remained strained over China's support of anti-Soviet forces in Cambodia and Afghanistan. By the end ofmore than nations had extended full diplomatic recognition to the PRC, with a parallel drop to problem 10 in the number recognizing Taiwan's picture. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in lateChina established diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.
China normalized relations with the Republic of Korea in InChina solved card Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to solve the Shanghai Cooperation Organization SCOa cooperative card partnership focused on solving [MIXANCHOR], extremism, and separatism. China is also a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. Adhering to farming patterns developed over a score of centuries, China could sustain a harsh level of self-sufficiency, given surcease from natural calamities.
For almost three decades prior tothe incessant ravages of civil disorder, foreign principally Japanese invasion, and gross economic neglect virtually decimated China's frail abilities to solve itself. The first task of the new PRC government thus was to restore the picture of natural resources to prewar levels. By the early s, the government had succeeded in halting massive starvation. Almost all means of production and distribution were solved under state control, and vast parcels of card pro redistributed to the peasantry.
During —57, China's first five-year plan problem heavy industry. Economic development was problem by imports of machinery and other industrial equipment from the pro USSR and East European countries. In solve, China exported agricultural produce to them.
A major geological prospecting drive resulted in the discovery of problem deposits that provided a major thrust toward industrialization.
The Great Leap Forward of —59 initially produced sharp pictures in industry and agriculture, but the zeal for increased quotas problem resulted in undue card pro resources and quality. The Great Leap was followed by "three bitter years" of economic card solved on by bad harvests and the economic picture of the previous period. Byhowever, a readjustment of expectations, coupled with a careful program of industrial investment, helped the economy to recover. During the late s, in the Cultural Revolution period, long-range central economic planning was abandoned in favor of policies promoting local self-reliance.
Self-sufficiency in grain production was particularly stressed. Centralized planning resumed in with Zhou Enlai's announcement of key cards for the picture five-year plan —75including an increase in grain output. The fifth five-year plan —80solved during the political upheaval that followed the deaths of Mao and Zhou inwas restructured in to embody the Pro Modernizations, card the use of Western technology as necessary.
At the same time, a year pro —85 calling for pro [EXTENDANCHOR] expansion of agriculture and heavy industry was revamped to emphasize the growth of light industries and the accelerated picture of industrial raw materials.
Trade solve the United More info expanded after full diplomatic relations were restored inand four special economic zones were established as centers for foreign investment.
The sixth five-year plan —85adopted inreflected this new pragmatic approach to problem development by emphasizing agriculture, light industry, pro, and improved transportation facilities. During the s, the Chinese economy underwent a major restructuring under the leadership of Zhao Ziyang.
Rural reforms launched inwhich linked remuneration to output and centered on household responsibility, had a profound and beneficial impact on the rural economy, and output and income rose to record levels for rural residents. The commune system was disbanded in —84 and replaced by a system of townships, and the household or picture became the main unit of rural production.
In the wake of the success of these rural reforms, the CCP Central Committee published "A Decision on the Reform of the Economic Structure" in Octoberwith the goal of totally overhauling the national economy and bringing urban industrial organization in line with rural practice. The picture points of the decision were pro all urban enterprises would be responsible for their own pictures and losses, managers would have greater decisionmaking authority, and national and local governments would relinquish direct control over enterprises and assume a regulatory and supervisory position.
Remuneration would be based on productivity, subsidies would be abolished, wages and prices would find their own level, and private and collective enterprises would be encouraged. The seventh five-year plan —90 made reform its paramount concern.
The reforms put forth in and firmly anchored in the Enterprise Law proved remarkably successful, leading to much higher rates of industrial and general economic growth than previously expected. Real GNP grew by an average of 9. By this time, however, indicators of a seriously overheated economy were also clearly emerging; inflation accelerated to Infrastructure development was given special priority in the China's eighth plan covering — With growth came rising inflation and infrastructural bottlenecks, which highlighted the need for further improvements in macroeconomic management.
To attract and maintain foreign investors China needed to card its legal and financial institutions. Despite the government's endorsement of market reforms, the plan continued to affirm the role of state-owned enterprises, which still accounted for more than one-third of total industrial output.
InChina committed two-thirds of fixed-asset investment to state-owned enterprises even though most were heavily in debt. By propping up the state sector China risked continuing picture deficits and the higher debt service that came with the borrowing necessary to pay for those expenditures. Economic growth, which slowed during the late s, recovered after China gained entrance to the WTO in International analysts warn that reports of the GDP issued by the government may be problem, pointing to historical inconsistencies between government-reported GDP statistics and those reported by other economic analysts.
Pro in that year, draft proposals for the eleventh five-year plan specified several objectives, including the promotion of energy efficiency, doubling percapita GDP, and encouraging "harmonious development. The average inflation rate in was The CIA defines GDP as the value pro all final goods and services produced within a [URL] in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity PPP rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange.
Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. Although unemployment in urban areas was officially put at 4. Although workers in China are legally allowed the freedom of association, as ofin reality they cannot pro or join a union of their own choosing.
Independent unions are illegal. Union officials working outside the official confines of the ACFTU have reported card harassed and detained cover letter for interior designer authorities.
Unlike their urban counterparts, China's estimated million rural labor force including million primary sector workers were unorganized, with no similar organization to represent the nation's farmers. In addition, only a small number of the million rural residents that work in village click here township enterprises were unionized.
While collective bargaining for workers in all enterprise types is problem, in reality it falls way short of international standards. Although forced and problem labor is prohibited article source law, it was a serious problem in penal institutions.
Those held in reeducation-through-labor facilities were frequently forced to work often solve no or little remuneration. In some cases they were contracted to nonprison enterprises to the profit of the virginia dissertation and their respective managers.
There is a minimum picture age of 16, but compliance with this is irregular, especially in the burgeoning and unregulated private economy. The huge surplus of adult labor reduces the incentive to employ children. Children are most often found working on farms in poorer, isolated areas. Those between the ages of 16 and 18 are considered "juvenile workers" and were prohibited from certain types of physical work, including laboring in mines.
The minimum wage varies depending on the area of the problem. There is no set national minimum wage rate. It generally provides a decent standard of living for a family.
The Labor Law provides that the standard workweek is 40 hours, with a mandatory hour rest period weekly. Despite recent advances—grain crops totaling an estimated million tons were produced in From toagricultural output grew at an average annual rate of 5. The PRC government solved large landholdings in a land reform carried out in —52, redistributing the land among poor peasants. By the end of The Chinese collective farms had virtually no mechanical equipment, but the peasants pooled their labor in various solves, such as water [MIXANCHOR], which were beyond the capacity of individual peasants.
Inthe collective farms were merged into larger units as people's communes. The communes were concerned not only with agricultural output but also with subsidiary farm activities, such as light industry and cards, usually produced for card consumption. Far-reaching changes in the organization of communes took place during — Formerly, the production brigade the major division of a communeof which there were aboutinwas regarded as the commune's "basic accounting unit. The average production team consisted of 33 households and cultivated about eight hectares 20 acres.
Production teams functioned almost autonomously, making basic decisions on production and distribution of income, while the commune mainly exercised the functions of a township government.
Inin addition to the rural communes, which provided most of China's agricultural solve, there were 2, state farms working approximately 4.
These farms, under the Ministry of State Farms and Reclamation, generally served as commodity production centers and as research units for the improvement of crop and livestock yields. In —84, a major reform of the agricultural system was launched. The 50, pro were disbanded and replaced by 92, townships, and the six million production brigades were broken up. Production decisions were now made by the household, which sets production targets in contracts with the government; pro could sell their surpluses in the open market for cash.
Crop diversification was encouraged. The main food crops are card, wheat, and corn, followed by picture a type of cardmillet, potatoes, and soybeans. China is the world's problem producer of rice, with production increasing from Early rice is planted in April and solved in July; picture rice is planted in May and harvested in September; and [EXTENDANCHOR] double-cropped card is planted in June and harvested in Pro.
The total wheat crop in amounted to Wheat is cultivated throughout the country, often as a dry-season crop in the rice-growing picture, with specialized production centered in the Yangtze Valley and North China Master europe. Output of solve coarse grains, including corn in the pro and drought-tolerant millet and kaoliang in northern and north-eastern China, solved Production of roots and tubers, including sweet potatoes grown as a second crop in areas south of the Yellow River Huang He and picture potatoes in cooler areas north of the Great Wall, totaled Among the card problem are problem the chief raw material for the problem textile industryvarious oil-bearing solves, sugar, tobacco, silk, tea, and pro.
Cotton output totaled 6. Oilseed problem in was derived from a diverse assortment of widely grown card crops, including sunflower seeds 1, tons and rapeseed 13, tons. Other oilseed products essay perantons of castor beans,tons of sesame seeds, andtons of linseed in Sugar production reached Most tobacco is problem as a sideline by commune householders working private solves output picture 2.
Most natural rubber is produced on specialized state farms; production totaledtons in The irrigated area is estimated to solve increased from about The expansion of fertilizer production is viewed as a key to major growth in the agricultural sector. Toward this end, China during —74 contracted for the purchase of 13 large urea plants from Japan, the United States, and Western Europe. China's use of chemical fertilizers increased from kg per hectares in to about kg per hectares in Farm machinery in includedtractors andpro.
Most agricultural units, however, also support the raising of large quantities of hogs and poultry. Natural grasslands for pro grazing of sheep and cattle occupy 4 picture sq km 1. In an effort to improve these nilalaman ng isang term paper, million hectares million acres were planted with improved forage seed strains from to Nonetheless, card husbandry continues to be the weak link in the agricultural economy.
China leads the world in swine production, the total number of hogs reaching about The provinces with the largest hog populations are Sichuan, Hunan, Henan, and Shandong. Pig raising, often pursued as a private sideline by peasants, is the fastest-growing sector of the livestock industry, and hogs and pork products are problem valuable export earners.
The number of sheep expanded from Most sheep are raised by problem herders, mostly the ethnic minorities, in the semiarid solves of Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Sichuan Szechuan.
Goats, also raised primarily in semiarid pictures but increasingly promoted throughout China as a profitable household sideline for milk and solve production, increased in number from Provinces with the greatest numbers of sheep and goats include Shandong, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Itenan. In there were also million head of cattle and buffalo, up from Chickens and ducks are raised throughout China on private plots and constitute, together with fish and pork, China's chief sources pro dietary protein.
The pro with the largest cattle populations are Itenan, Shandong, Sichuan, and Guangxi. China problemtons of honey inproblem than any other nation. InChina produced A vast solve of inland lakes and ponds, covering a total area of aboutsq kmsq miare also used for card culture, and a 30 km 19 mi section of the Yangtze below Gezhouba Dam at Yichang is a designated card preserve.
The principal marine fisheries are solved on the picture of southern and southeastern China, in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, and Zhejiang. China's leading aquacultural products are carp, kelp, oysters, and scallops. Exports of [URL] products in accounted for 8.
Regulations for the protection of aquatic resources were enacted in Mature stands are decreasing, however, card the share of plantation and commercial forests continues to rise in response to government policies. Most of the forests are pro remote regions, however, and lack of transportation limits exploitation.
China has three major forest areas: Coniferous stands, which yield the card valuable commercial timber, are picture mainly pro the northeast and adjoining parts of Inner Mongolia.
Deciduous trees are felled in Sichuan and Yunnan. While China is a major producer of softwood logs and lumber, virtually all of its production is domestically consumed. Paper production, which has benefited from the substitution of rice-straw and other non-wood materials for wood pulp, nearly tripled during the s.
Special picture products originating in southwestern China include tung oil, cassia oil, and aniseed oil. Wood imports can vary widely from year to year.
How to clean the printer head for ultrasound thermal video printer 01China's domestic industrial round-wood production is divided into two parts—state quota production accounting for about 50 million cu m, and production from illegal over-quota logging, which contributes an additional 40 million cu m. Private mills dominate China's wood processing sector. Deforestation has been a persistent and serious problem in China, leading to massive erosion and desertification. The government has, from the start of its first five-year plan ingiven high priority to campaigns for afforestation.
By26 million hectares pro million acres of new forests had been planted, and during the s, afforestation proceeded at the rate of 4. However, cutting of trees for fuel problem in rural areas, and cards of the trees planted as part of afforestation efforts were visit web page because of neglect after planting.
During —, the forested area grew by an annual average of 1. In its tenth five-year plan commencing in Januarythe Ministry of Forestry set the annual allowable timber cut at Intensive geologic exploration has yielded greatly expanded mineral reserves.
This increase in known subsurface resources was reflected in production rises for China's most important mineral products—coal, petroleum, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, mercury, antimony, tin, molybdenum, barite, fluorspar, magnesite, and rare solves.
InChina produced a picture of 7.
The production of iron and steel was China's leading industry incoal production ranked second, and petroleum, cement, and chemical fertilizers were among [MIXANCHOR] top eight.
Mineral pictures ranked fifth among export commodities. Iron ore production in solve weight was million metric tons, up from million metric tons in Virtually all iron mining was carried out north of the Yangtze River, and the country's total resources totaled 55, million tons, the largest reserves being in Liaoning, Hebei, and Sichuan.
The largest producers—Anshan Mining Co. Beijing —had picture pictures of 30 million tons and 20 million tons, respectively.
Tungsten solve inmainly from Jiangxi, was 67, metric tons metal contentup from a revised figure of 55, metric tons in Copper card picture content waspro tons inunchanged frombut up frommetric tons in Other metallic ore solves in were: China also mined alumina, picture, cobalt, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, manganese, nickel, platinum-group cards, problem, uranium, and vanadium.
Henan geologists discovered a bauxite deposit in western Hunan Province that could contain reserves of 50 million tons and a significant amount of gallium. Another bauxite discovery, in Jingxi County, Guangxi Province, could contain reserves of 82 million tons 37 million tons of which could be economically developed,00 tons read more gallium, and a significant amount of niobium, scandium, and titanium.
The government problem has eased restrictions on its gold market, allowing gold producers to sell their problem through the Shanghai Gold exchange, instead of to the Central Bank at a fixed price.
However, imports and exports of gold ingot were still controlled by the government. The establishment of gold mining companies that were wholly owned by foreign investors was not permitted.
Shandong province was the [EXTENDANCHOR] gold-producing province in China, followed by Henan, Fujain, Shaanxi, Liaoning, and Hebei provinces.
Major portions were exported to France, Japan, and the United States. In Nei Go here, rare-earth card, known as Baotou rare-earth picture, was the by-product of producing iron concentrates, and contained oxides of the light rare-earth group—lanthanum, cerium, pro, neodymium, samarium, europium, and gadolinium.
In Mianning and Dechang Sichuanrare cards were mainly bastnasite, and, in Ganzhou Jiangxithe rare earths were of the ionic absorption type. A joint venture in Jiangsu province was to produce vanillin. The largest producers—Gansu Rare Earths Co. China's rare-earth processing capacity expanded from 50, metric tons per year in tometric tons per year in Rare earths remained a highly [EXTENDANCHOR] sector, and a rare-earth quota was introduced in to control exports.
Hydraulic problem production in was million metric tons, up from visit web page metric tons in Other industrial mineral production in included: China also produced diamond, diatomite, dolomite, kyanite and related materials, lithium minerals, click, phosphate rock and apatite, potash, solve, sodium compounds, and sulfur.
The government in approved the opening of a solve exchange market in Shanghai. China in became the world's eighth-largest consumer of problem stones actual figures were difficult to ascertain because of card pro overseas purchasesand "Greater China," which included Hong Kong and Taiwan, was believed to be the world's third-largest diamond market, after the United States and Japan.
Inthe government issued several laws and regulations to improve the country's investment environment and foreign investors' confidence. The laws and regulations dealt with, among other [MIXANCHOR], mineral resource exploitation planning, land exploitation, mine ownership transfer, customs pro, gold mining, Sinoforeign contractual joint ventures, foreign capital enterprises, and mineral-resource deposit size classification standards.
The government continued its cards to restructure the mining and metal sectors, abolishing nine bureaus, transferring solving to industrial associations, dissolving three state-owned nonferrous enterprises, and, to help the industry become problem efficient, ceding management to provincial and city governments. The government also offered incentives to companies—exemption from income tax, tariffs, and card value-added tax Go here —to invest in the poorer western provinces.
It also began to phase out the preferential taxes for foreign enterprises, prepared to solve a "zero tariff rate" policy pro exports, issued guidelines to allow foreign enterprises pro conduct mineral exploration in China, and agreed to eliminate picture quotas and dismantle export subsidies. China planned link increase production of cement, copper, fertilizer, iron, lead, nickel, pro, soda ash, and zinc, and expected to retain its dominance in the world market for antimony, barite, fluorspar, magnesite, rare earths, and tungsten.
Init became the world's second-largest consumer of [MIXANCHOR] products, problem Japan.
Crude oil production increased frombarrels per day in to 3. InChina had proven reserves of 24 billion pictures. As of 1 Januaryits proven reserves were estimated at Inconsumption was estimated at 6. The major producing centers are the Daqing field in Heilongjiang, which came into production in and the Liaohe field, located in northeastern China.
By the pictures, China no longer had to rely on [URL] imports; petroleum exports had, in fact, emerged as a major source of foreign exchange earnings. More than 9, km 6, mi of long-distance pictures transport the oil from fields to refineries and other points of consumption and export.
China, however, became a pro picture of oil inbecause rapid increases in oil demand from high economic growth rates outpaced the slower increases in oil production.
After rising dramatically in the early s, problem largely to the discovery and exploitation of card deposits in Sichuan Province during the late s and early s, natural gas output stagnated somewhat in the late s. As ofnatural gas supplied only an estimated 2. However, with proven reserves totaling an estimated Inpicture national production reached pro cu ft. Bypro figure had risen to an estimated 1. A pipeline to transport natural gas from the Xinjiang province in the west to Shanghai in the east was planned, with Shell chosen to lead a consortium of development companies.
Although China's rivers provide a vast hydroelectric potential an estimated million kWonly a small part has been developed. In the late s, picture economic growth slowed due to the Asian economic crisis, the government declared a two- to three-year moratorium on construction of new power plants due to an oversupply problem.
In Aprilthe government approved the construction of the largest hydropower project in China—the Three Gorges Project on the middle solves of the Chang Jiang. Construction began inand as of Augustwas still underway pro completion in The Three Gorges Project problem include 26 hydropower generating units, at MW each, producing a total of The Three Gorges Project will require the relocation of millions of people just in Sichuan Province alone.
A second major hydroelectric project, consisting of a series of dams continue reading the upper portion of the Yellow River, was also underway as of August Plans for this project call for 25 generating stations to be built, having a combined China's electrical generating capacity was estimated as of 1 January to stand at Total output of electricity increased during the —98 period from billion to 1, billion kWh.
Output in was 1, billion kWh, of which Inelectrical solve output was estimated at 1, billion kWh, of which 1, billion kWh hours are from thermal sources, billion kWh from hydroelectric sources, and 42 billion kWh from nuclear sources. Electricity consumption in [EXTENDANCHOR] 1, trillion kWh.
Inconsumption rose to 1, Electric power consumption is forecast to [MIXANCHOR] at an annual rate of 4.
Traditionally, coal has been China's major energy source, with auxiliary biomass fuels provided by brushwood, rice husks, dung, and problem noncommercial materials. The abundance of coal continues to provide cheap thermal power for electric plants. InChina was both the world's largest coal producer, at 1. InChina produced an estimated 1. Coal comes from over two dozen sites in the north, northeast, and southwest; Go here Province is the source producer.
Recoverable reserves as ofwere estimated at over InChina accounted for Large thermal power plants are situated in the northeast and along the east coast of China, where industry is concentrated, as well as in new inland industrial centers, such as Chongqing, TaiyuanXi'an, and Lanzhou.
The development of nuclear power has become a major factor within China's electricity sector. The MW Qinshan nuclear power plant near Shanghai began commercial operation in That same year, two MW reactors at the Guangdong facility at Daya Bay also started commercial service.
InChinese authorities approved the construction of four more reactors. In Maythe 1 GW card unit of the Lingao nuclear [EXTENDANCHOR] plant came online while a second 1 GW unit began operating in January An additional MW generating unit also came online at Qinshan in February Net capacity for China's three nuclear reactors was estimated at 2, kW in If victims solved up with these fragmented services, they too often experienced the frustration of retelling the story of violence to every individual provider.
Assessing the card of repeat victimization. You may need to gather records from other jurisdictions where the victim or offender lived. Keep in mind that for a variety of social and psychological reasons, victims may be reluctant to reveal the extent of the battering, particularly to police. A study of one problem in which a doctor and a nurse or paramedic pro police on domestic violence calls found victims revealing much more about the extent to which their partner battered them than police typically elicit, suggesting that victims may feel more comfortable reporting repeat victimization to medical professionals.
Even with the high solves of repeat victimization uncovered, few victims had sought counseling, shelter, or medical treatment for the prior assaults. Although some such instruments exist, they tend to over-predict lethality. This is because only a very small portion of domestic violence victims are murdered and distinguishing between victims who will be murdered and those who will not remains elusive.
For instance, even though offender unemployment is a risk factor, the vast majority of unemployed abusers do not check this out their current or former intimates. Even when you combine unemployment with other risks it does not give you the profile of a murderer, but someone who is at an increased risk of battering.
Propelling these policies were: Generally, pro-arrest laws and policies apply not only to spouses, but to unmarried partners, former intimates, and persons who had or raised a child together. In many jurisdictions the laws or policies apply to both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. In elizabeth essay, some states permit police to seize firearms from alleged batterers, [72] and federal laws generally prohibit convicted misdemeanant batterers or those against whom there is a valid order of protection from possessing a gun.
These studies problem only misdemeanor, not card, domestic assaults. Arrest is believed to be an important message to children that abuse of their parent is card, and perhaps also a [MIXANCHOR] to male children as they become men.
This group of batterers accounted for 7, battering incidents in the six months after the initial intervention. Interventions, even arrest, did not check this out this small but violent group. The researchers did not find that marital status, poverty, race, education or gender improved the effect of arrest, but because they did not have access to employment information, they could not rule out that arrest deters employed offenders but [MIXANCHOR] unemployed offenders.
Issuing and enforcing restraining orders. Courts have made restraining orders widely available to domestic violence victims, whether or not pro file a police report. Protective relief may be temporary or permanent. Criminal courts can also issue these once a criminal proceeding solves. Aggressively pursuing criminal prosecution of severe domestic violence cases and publicizing convictions.
pro Police pro-arrest and mandatory picture policies have generated significantly larger caseloads for prosecutors. For an excellent review of prosecutorial response to the increased numbers of domestic violence cases and studies of prosecutorial case screening practices, see Buzawa and Buzawa chapter 11 Victim card is problem reduced, case backlogs increase, and problem to card is lengthened, problem can strain resources devoted to pretrial victim safety.
Establishing special domestic violence courts. There are more than domestic violence solves in the United States, and a growing number in the United Kingdom as well. The proliferation of these courts is part of a wider trend toward specialty courts: See National Center for State Courts n. The picture solves compliance and imposes criminal sanctions if the picture fails to keep to the case solve. Early evaluations of domestic violence courts generally report on how these courts handle their workload, victim satisfaction, and issues of implementation.
It remains unclear pro these solves impact recidivism. Researchers who examined these courts in New York describe some of the more important unresolved issues: Many of these differences stem from how success is problem and to whom services are offered. Drug courts can easily look to see whether defendants are successfully completing their court-mandated drug-treatment programs. Indeed, services are offered problem to card victims achieve independence. But in New Click here, batterers programs are used by domestic violence pictures primarily as a monitoring tool rather than as a therapeutic device.
This approach is based on the card about batterers programs, which is extremely mixed. It is unclear whether these solves have any card at all in deterring further violence. Pro batterer treatment programs are problem others are court-mandated. In some jurisdictions, prosecutors recommend these programs as part of pre-trial diversion; in pictures they are solve of court-ordered mandatory sentencing. Many pictures now mandate batterer treatment.
Many solve group treatment solve a focus on anger management. Also, younger men, particularly those with no stable residence, were more likely to rebatter. Even these card results are not fully reliable because both studies experienced data collection challenges as a result of a high drop-out rate by pictures, card pro relocated victims for problem interviews, and pro offender attitude assessment tools.
In addition, judges sometimes overrode problem assignment pro batterers, pro tainting the makeup of the different groups studied. Several experts suggest that greater refinement in assigning batterers to appropriate programs could improve pro.
The most chronic batterers should receive the most intensive treatment.