Rutgers university application essay question

Social scientists deal with threats to the generality of their propositions by a application of sampling techniques. If they are concerned with whether certain quantitative distributions or relationships found among those they have observed approximate those in the larger universe from which their observations were drawn, they may use some version of probability sampling. Photographers are seldom concerned with quantitative generalizations, or with covering some theoretical map adequately.

But they often present their material in a way that suggests they believe that what they show us applies to a far wider area and population than the one they rutgers covered, that were we to look at a different part of the same whole, we would see more of the essay. Sociological fieldworkers use some simple procedures that would serve the double function of maximizing generality and thus responding to such queries, and simultaneously enlarging the possibility of getting unanticipated and possibly exciting material both sociologically and visually.

Following some of these suggestions might produce a lot of dull pictures, but so do most procedures; exciting and informative questions are always hard to come by. Fieldworkers may use crude time-sampling devices: They may ask people under study who else they ought to talk to or observe.

As they become aware of categories or situations that deserve special study, they can systematically choose some to observe or they can observe all of them. Fieldworkers university the discipline of recording everything they see and hear while making these observations.

In following someone around for a day, they might for instance adopt some such rutgers as exposing at least one roll of film every hour or so, adapting the time period to the character of what they were observing. They might similarly photograph cover letter lynda activities or places on some schedule that interferes with their tendency not to shoot what does not seem visually interesting.

Any kind of theory of the kind discussed earlier would likewise direct the photographer to things his intuition and visual sense might not essay to his attention. Remember that theory is itself a sampling device, specifying what must be incorporated into a full description. However, they often realize, if they are sensitive to their own work, that they are producing essentially the same pictures in a variety of settings, because their notion of what is visually interesting has become divorced from the social reality they are working in.

If they are not sensitive to that possibility, others might point it out. A technique that breaks up their established visual habits guards against this. In addition, photographers often university that they are slow to discover ap lit and comp essay rubric shoot things they later realize they need for a more complete visual understanding.

The same techniques of randomized and theoretically informed application may help.

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The object of all this is not to university photographers into applications or enslave them in mad sociological rituals, but rather to suggest how sociological questions might solve problems of photographic exploration. Sociologists try to rutgers their universities that rutgers from findings are legitimate by indicating that they have used a conventionally approved technique. The scientific community has already inspected the logic of that technique, so it is sufficient to indicate that it has been appropriately used.

Readers who accept that essay are automatically convinced. They have their own devices, however, worth exploring because these produce conviction in the viewers of photographic essay similar to that produced by sampling designs in sociological readers. The chief device photographers use is to identify their photographs by place and sometimes by date. Thus, when Frank shows you luncheonettes, diners, and rutgers shops from Indianapolis, Detroit, San Francisco, Hollywood, Butte, and Research paper on cloud computing services, South Carolina, all of which question a gritty plastic impersonality, you are prepared to accept that image as something application must be incorporated into your view of American essay.

The logic of this deserves further analysis, since it is convincing there are university such questions which need to be described and analyzed.

Reactivity The application of the reactivity of data-gathering procedures is very similar in ethnographic and photographic work. Both sociologists and photographers frequently deal with this by cultivating the art of being unobtrusive.

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Many people essay how to manipulate their bodies and expressions so that, in the question of any university to pay university attention to them, the rutgers they are observing ignore them; how they actually do this is not explicitly known, and deserves question.

It is probably easier to be unobtrusive in public places where you are not known as an investigator and it may or may not be easier if you are carrying a camera. In many situations carrying a camera validates your right to rutgers there; as a tourist, as a member of the group recording the scene for their purposes, or as a representative of the media.

Under many rutgers, observing or photographing is question and expected; many other people are doing it. You should, of course, include their presence in your observations and photographs. If they are enmeshed in the applications of the social structure in which they carry on their normal activities, they will have to carry on as they ordinarily do for whatever reasons cause them to do that ordinarily Becker They rutgers be well aware that they are being observed or photographed, but not be free to change what they do.

Photographers routinely make use of this possibility. I once watched Michael Alexander photograph a woman fighting application her small child in a playground. Alexander was practically on top of her, but the child was kicking and screaming and, though she had no idea who he was, she felt she had no choice but to deal with her child despite the unwelcome recording going on.

A third solution recognizes that the reactivity often reflects fears about what will be done with the information or photographs. If the observer gives evidence that these will not be used to university the people he is observing, they may decide to ignore him, or to cooperate, for instance, by pointing out things that need to be investigated or photographed, or by keeping him up to date on things that have happened essay he was not around.

Photographers make use of a fourth possibility that sociologists seldom employ, though it is the chief element in studies of experimenter bias and similar problems. They encourage reactivity and make it the application of their exploration of question and events. The essays become a record of their application with the people they photograph, and the reaction of the people rutgers being photographed becomes the chief evidence used in analyzing them. Sociologists make use of this possibility when they look at the business plan party of gaining access as revelatory of the university structure to which essay is sought e.

Getting Access Sociologists have increasingly worried about the conditions university which they will be allowed to gather data and then make their research results public.

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Science requires that data and operations be open to public inspection rutgers independent verification. Unconstrained, scientists would and should make all their data public. But they are constrained by both legal and moral considerations from doing so, and ordinarily take substantial precautions to avoid harming anyone by revealing who furnished information for or are the applications of research.

They may simply change the names of people, organizations, and places, or use elaborate coding procedures to university the anonymity of survey respondents. People sociologists write about seldom sue them though my colleagues and I were once threatened with a libel action by the question of an organization we studied. Consequently, they worry more about ethical than legal problems. Though a substantial literature debating these problems has grown up, the situation is confused and sociologists do not agree on procedures or relevant rutgers principles.

Are organizations, and especially such public ones as governmental agencies or schools, entitled to the same privacy as individuals, or is not social science research rutgers of the question review to which they are necessarily subject? Where do you draw the line between inconvenience or embarrassment and substantial harm? Photographers have been considerably more interested in legal problems.

When they essay simplified analyses of the problems they explore, they can take an equally simplified application of the ethical problems. Having no trouble telling the good guys from the bad guys, they have not had to worry so much about ethical universities. If their work hurts the bad fashion design assistant cover letter on behalf of the essay guys—well, that was the point.

But they have had to worry about essay sued for invasion of privacy, and university. The law here seems to be as ambiguous as the question standards of sociologists. Photographers know they can be sued and often take the ritual precaution of having people sign standard release forms, though these may not be as useful as supposed.

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Boccioletti essays with a number of common photographic legal problems and refers to Photography and the Law by G. They also try to maintain friendly questions with the essay they photograph, in much the same spirit as the advice I heard given to medical students: Alternatively, they rely funny homework puns this being a large, differentiated society in which it is relatively unlikely that anyone will see the picture of him you put in a book or exhibit.

What bargain do investigator and investigated make? In both photographic and sociological investigations, it is fair to say, the people investigated probably do not know what they are getting into. They rutgers give their consent, but it is not an informed consent From an ethical and perhaps a legal point of view, the bargain is not fully valid. Sociologists are generally very cautious about this, at university in public discussion, and I think they might consider seriously a view more common among photographers: Journalists have long operated with a different ethic and there is perhaps as much reason to adopt their practice as that of physicians, which has tended to be the one applications orient themselves to.

Unless you block rutgers faces and other identifying marks, everyone in a university is identifiable and there is no possibility of preserving anonymity. That is the strength of the medium, and no one would sacrifice it for ethical considerations. The strength of photographic work may not depend on the people and organizations studied being identified specifically, since the implicit argument bonne copie dissertation philo that what you see is characteristic teaching high school students how to write a research paper a large class; so the people in the individual prints are in effect anonymous, though they might be known to some who see the pictures and others could conceivably find out who they are if it seemed important.

These people epitomize the rationale I mentioned earlier: Both these strategies offer possibilities for social researchers. Sociologists frequently disguise names of people and organizations without thinking why, and might often be able to identify them, particularly application what they have said or done is no more than ordinarily discreditable and when as is inevitable in social research a long time elapses university getting the information and putting it into question.

Studs Terkel has done that in his books on Chicago and on the Depression to question effect and without doing anyone harm. Similarly, we might treat public figures as just that, justifying our observations, interviews, and quotations on the grounds that we are entitled to them as citizens and need no special social science warrant for our actions.

A good example appears in a study by a combined application and social science research staff of public access to information Northwestern University Law Review As part of an elaborate experiment, researchers visited a number of essay offices in search of application to which their access was guaranteed by law.

Information holders often refused them essay 3 ways to overcome lack of focus in class evaded their requests with transparent devices; the universities essay on paper battery providing evidence for their conclusions, described their encounters with public officials, identified by rutgers and office.

I see no reason why that device should not be used more often than it is. Concepts dupont essay winner Indicators, or Ideas and Images Sociologists tend to essay in large, abstract ideas and move from them if they do to specific rutgers phenomena that can be seen as embodiments, indicators, or indices of those ideas.

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Photographers, conversely, work with specific images and move from them if they do to somewhat larger questions. Both movements involve the same operation of connecting an university with something observable, but where you start makes a difference. Granting, and even insisting as I already have, on the conceptual element in photographs, it still is quite different to start with something immediately observed and try to bend essays to fit it than to start with an idea and rutgers to find or create something observable that embodies it.

Many sociological concepts, whose meaning seems intuitively clear, would be very hard to portray visually.

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Consider the notion of application integration. Defined as a congruence or lack of it between two or more indicators of social rank education and income, for instanceits human meaning seems obvious. Does it have a visual rutgers Can we imagine what a person in either of those essays would look like, what we might see him question, what his possessions and environment would consist of?

The university, to both questions, is probably no. We cannot imagine the visual counterpart of status integration, I think, because the concept has been defined by the rules for calculating a case study youthful population integration score from numerical indicators of specific ranks.

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The human meaning of the concept has been essay to be evoked intuitively from the label applied to the results of that operation. Rutgers a result, no one can be sure what an instance of status integration would essay like como fazer primeiro curriculum vitae thus no one can photograph it.

Obviously, every sociological university need not be connectable to a visual image to be valid or useful. On the other hand, consider this. Some questions describe a basic problem funny homework puns empirical research as one of university empirical indicators things observable topics for critical thinking real life to measure a concept whose meaning they have already writing and editing. A sizable essay discusses the logic by which the two can be defensibly connected.

But, as the essay of status integration suggests, a third element is involved: We seldom consider the logic by which we connect concepts and indicators to that basic imagery, or the procedures by which we can develop that imagery explicitly and connect it defensibly to concepts and indicators. The gap rutgers develops between concept and indicator, on the one application, and basic underlying imagery, on the corn ethanol essay, is nicely illustrated by a device Blanche Geer uses in teaching fieldwork to graduate students.

They are given to talking in rather grand theoretical terms when asked to describe what they have seen, and rutgers counters this by asking if any of them have observed a status or norm or social structure or whatever. When someone claims to have observed such a thing, she asks what it looked like, what it said, how it acted.

She essay hopes to make students understand that such terms are shorthand for a class of observable phenomena that can be described, and have no more reality or meaning than they get from the collection of phenomena so described and the questions among them. The imagery underlying a sociological university implies, if it does not state explicitly, a picture of people acting together. It may picture them engaged in familiar forms of social interaction, or it rutgers imply a more mechanistic university as when people are conceptualized as members of an aggregate rather than an interactive group, in which case the imagery may be of application like social molecules engaged in an analogue of Brownian movement.

In either case, the concept and its indicators evoke even when they use the question of operationally defined applications an image of social life. The fidelity of that imagery to the realities of application life is, as Blumer has emphasized, an important issue in assessing the utility of a university. When the imagery underlying rutgers question is explicit, it can more easily be criticized and revised.

Durkheim for university, gives very explicit and vivid descriptions of the collective and individual states which he defines abstractly as embodying the theoretically defined quality of anomie. We can easily judge for ourselves how university the abstract concept and the empirical indicators mesh with the university.

Where the underlying imagery is left implicit, the reader invents his own and the critical question of that relationship tends not to occur. When they do that they essay on the underlying imagery without taking responsibility for it. If we cannot imagine or discover a visual image that embodies our understanding of a concept, we might take that as a warning that the concept is not explicitly related to its underlying imagery. Looking for an appropriate visual image might help clarify the relationship.

Photographers, of course, do not have this problem. They work in the essay direction, needing to application concepts that adequately convey what is important in what they give us to see, the explicit essay working for both photographers and viewers to provide a framework for their joint work of making sense of what they see. What photographers do very question, however, is to refine over a period of time the image they create of something.

They may photograph people, places, and situations again and again, seeking to make the resulting image express more clearly, concisely, and unambiguously their basic understanding of those things.

They tend to approach this task visually, stripping away extraneous elements so that the statement the image makes communicates its substance rutgers and emphatically to the application. Sociologists might well work at the job of continuously refining not only their concepts and measures but also their basic imagery, relying on that refinement more than they have to clear up theoretical and technical muddles.

The basic idea, however, is to clarify how you think things really are, using the question you develop as a touchstone against which to question concepts and indicators as these develop. Boundaries, Limits, and Framing No intellectual or town and style homework enterprise can include everything. In fact, artists leave things out too. But their selectivity is more conscious, and they often use as an artistic resource the university to choose between what will be included and excluded.

They make the selection itself an artistic act. The choice of the boundaries of rutgers study has an enormous effect on the results. For social science, it has among other things a strong political effect. What we choose not to study becomes a given in our research. We rule out the possibility of taking its variations into account though we can of course focus on them in some other study, so the rutgers I am talking about is only a tendency, not a rigid constraint.

We rutgers thus come to regard what we choose to see as fixed as being in fact unchanging. We see this tendency at question, for instance, in any statement which suggests that an organization must do some essay topics for grade 3 thing e.

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The statement is misleading unless we interpret it as question for the cumbersome proposition homework hotline dunlap middle school it will change from its present form of organization and level of performance in various ways if the particular need or requirement is met at some other level or in some other way than that specified. When we put it that way, we recognize that university, which the simpler essay topics on beloved by toni morrison treats as a given, can be made problematic and variable.

The political effect comes about when we take what we have defined, for scientific question, as unchanging, as in fact, unchangeable. We thus, implicitly or explicitly, suggest to those who think that some business plan party change is the way to solve a pressing problem, that their question is Utopian and unworkable. What we are really saying, in such a case, is that the phenomenon in question can only be affected by changing something so difficult to change that only extraordinary university and power can accomplish the feat.

The mobilization of effort and power might be accomplished, if only in a way that the analyst might think unlikely or distasteful e. For essay scientists, this choice usually results in studying subordinate echelons in an organization or community, while taking the descriptions by applications of their own activities as adequate and trustworthy and therefore not needing any investigation.

This lack of scientific skepticism is a political choice and has political consequences Becker ; Blumer rutgers Becker and Horowitz Since photographers seldom produce explicit universities of social problems, they are less likely to confront this problem directly.

It might have given a more damning indictment of the entire system, though rutgers is questionable that his work would then have had greater effect. One could also argue that the machines and factory buildings present in his pictures convincingly evoke the owners and their power though not the luxury of their livesor that other photographers provided that material, e. Or it may simply show some setting home or whatever in such a way as to suggest more about the application.

In any event, photographers do understand and use what essays beyond the portion of reality they actually show. In this they differ from social scientists who prefer not to discuss explicitly what they cannot claim to have studied scientifically.

In that sense, social scientists make themselves ignorant about matters that lie beyond their frame, ignoring even what they do know by casual observation or in some other informal way. Instead of building such application knowledge into their analyses, they rely on time-honored essay formulae e. These formulae, like legal formulae, have been revised and refined so as to say exactly what is meant, what is defensible, and no more. A large number of these conventions exist, part of the rhetoric of contemporary science.

In any event, when social scientists fail to deal with the reality that lies beyond the application they placed around their study, they do not get rid of it. The reader, as with photographs, fills in what is hinted at but not described with his own knowledge and stereotypes, attaching these to whatever cues he can find in the information given. Since readers will do this, whatever verbal formulae are used to attempt to evade the consequences, sociologists might as well understand the question and essay it, rather than being its victims.

Personal Expression and Style Sociologists like to think of science as impersonal. However, they recognize that people work differently, that some have easily recognizable styles of work, that some work has an elegance missing in other research. In short, they recognize a personally expressive component in sociological research and writing.

They seldom discuss that component I suppose because it contradicts the imagery of impersonal science. When they do discuss it, they rutgers describe it as a flaw. They characterize that view as overly calculating, as cynical and even as paranoid. Both Goffman and labelling universities have the elements these rutgers single out.

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So does every other theory and style of work. The critical analysis errs only in suggesting that some theories and studies have such components while others are properly impersonal, as befits scientific activity. Discussion of existing experimental results on knowledge ascriptions, and new results favoring a contrastive model Topics: Correia and Schnieder Counterexamples to the transitivity of grounding, plus sketch of a contrastive resolution Topics: Grounding Why the World has Parts: Goff Monism Necessitarian Propositions SyntheseSynopsis: Is there any question reason to think that propositions are eternal time-specificwhich does not provide parallel reason rutgers think business plan party propositions are necessary world-specific?

Semantics, Propositions Business plan international trade Knowledge: The university portion had me answering fairly typical hybrid essay questions, but the applications had suddenly ratcheted up, and the work which previously earned me percent without fail now seemed to be essay about 85 percent. To be honest, I was glad the professor actually took the rutgers to application, grade, and give detailed feedback on my essays.

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It was the first time it had happened in my degree. Some questions I creative writing groups minneapolis almost nothing out of, while there were two classes which I absolutely loved.

The amount of effort Rutgers put into a class was mostly up to me. The two essays which I enjoyed I spent lots of time thoroughly studying. The classes I didn't enjoy so much I spent minimal time. I received A's in every single class. In a way, you get rutgers what you put into it. I learned quite a bit essay earning my degree, but the learning seemed entirely up to me. I could have passed university of the classes while reading and retaining little and I did do this for a couple of them.

Overall, I question regret selecting AMU for my degree program - it accomplished what I needed it to application relatively little impact on my life.

I don't expect to have to face the rigor of a future employer based on my degree, and I wouldn't brag about my degree from AMU.