There is not a single explanation for why an amphibian population succumbs or does not succumb to chytridiomycosis and in most cases multiple factors are probably at work to result in a particular outcome. Can amphibian populations with chytridiomycosis recover? Recent research has shown that a critical factor in determining if chytridiomycosis will cause extinction of an amphibian population is if the level of intensity of the infection with Bd crosses a certain threshold Briggs et al.

Like the individual amphibian species that are resistant to chytridiomycosis see above , understanding why persistent populations maintain low intensity infections with Bd is very important and could lead to methods to control the disease in wild populations. Where is Bd found?

Where did Bd come from? Since its discovery, Bd has been found in wild and captive amphibian populations on every amphibian-inhabited continent. Bd is also found in Africa, Asia, and eastern North America, but does not seem to be spreading in these locations. Bd is conspicuously absent from Madagascar, Borneo and New Guinea. It is now well-documented for amphibian populations in Central America and the western United States that Bd was not present in the population until the beginning of declines due to chytridiomycosis Lips et al.

In other words it appears that Bd was newly introduced to these locations and then caused the population declines. So if Bd has only recently been introduced to new locations, where did it come from? There is genetic and historical evidence that Bd has been present for a long time in Africa Soto-Azat et al. Although the exact origin of Bd has not yet been determined, it has become clear that global trade in amphibians for food, for use as laboratory animals, or for use as pets or display animals is responsible for movement of Bd to locations where it was not previously present Weldon et al.

This has led to international regulations under the World Organization for Animal Health to require that amphibians be free of Bd infection before international shipment Schloegel et al, How does Bd spread? The zoospore has a very distinctive appearance with a single flagellum that helps the spore swim through water or moist environments. Zoospores require moisture and cool temperatures and can persist in moist environments for several months Johnson and Speare, , but do not tolerate conditions that are warm or dry for more than a few hours Johnson and Speare, Therefore, the most common and successful ways that Bd zoospores spread from place to place are in water, moist or wet materials including soil or equipment or on the skin of infected amphibians.

In fact, the most common way that Bd infection spreads between amphibians is from direct contact of an infected animal with an uninfected animal e. In captivity, it is possible to house amphibians infected with Bd in enclosures next to enclosures with amphibians that are not infected with Bd and not transmit the infection as long as animals, water and wet materials and tools are not shared between the enclosures.

Guidelines to reduce the transmission of Bd in captive environments are available Pessier and Mendelson, Therefore, it is important that biologists and others take precautions to clean and disinfect their boots and equipment before moving from one location that has amphibians to another location in order to minimize the risk of spreading Bd Phillot et al.

Because many amphibians that are infected with Bd are resistant to the disease chytridiomycosis see above , they can appear to be outwardly healthy but are still capable of spreading Bd from one location to another. This is important because these animals may act as a reservoir for transmitting Bd infection to other amphibians as part of natural movements between different watersheds.

Amphibians can also move Bd to new locations as the result of trade in amphibians see above or potentially by the release of captive amphibians to the wild See Amphibians in Classrooms.

What are the signs of chytridiomycosis? Some of the most common signs are reddened or otherwise discolored skin, excessive shedding of skin, abnormal postures such as a preference for keeping the skin of the belly away from the ground, unnatural behaviors such as a nocturnal species that suddenly becomes active during the day, or seizures. In addition, other cases of chytridiomycosis will not show any of these signs and amphibians will simply be found dead.

For these reasons it is not possible to diagnose chytridiomycosis with the naked eye and laboratory testing is required see How is Chytridiomycosis Diagnosed? How is chytridiomycosis diagnosed? Right Side Increase 1stitch in the first stitch, knit in front and back of the stitch and P1 K one to the last stitch. Increase 1 stitch in the last stitch. Repeat rows 1 and 2 until there are 43 57, 80 stitches on the needle. K1, P1, evenly until work measures the required length from neck to base of tail.

K1, P1 14 18, 25 stitches and place these on the stitch holder. Bind off the next 15 21, 30 stitches for neck opening. K1, P1 to the end of the row. These 14 18, 25 stitches will form the first shoulder. Shoulder Shaping K1, P1 to the last 2 stitches. Knit or Purl the last 2 stitches together as per pattern. Work in rib pattern until work measures about 2 3, 5 inches from the bound off stitches at the neck edge.

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