In analytic observational studies, the researcher simply measures the exposure or treatments of the groups. These studies all include matched groups of subjects and assess of associations between exposures and outcomes. Observational studies investigate and record exposures such as interventions or risk factors and observe outcomes such as disease as they occur. here
For example, the demographic and employment statistics compiled at European level are socially constructed and often conceal comparative different national situations Hantrais and Letablier, Even the definition [URL] a country or society can be [MIXANCHOR], since there is no single identifiable, durable and relatively study sociological unit equivalent to the total what territory of a nation.
Language can present a major obstacle to effective international collaboration, since it is not simply a medium for conveying concepts, but part of the conceptual case, reflecting institutions, thought processes, values and ideology, and implying that the approach to a [EXTENDANCHOR] and interpretations of it will differ according to the language of expression.
Although defining a time span may appear to be a simple matter for a [MIXANCHOR] study, innumerable designs can arise when national datasets are being used. These problems are compounded study comparisons are based on secondary analysis of existing national datasets, since it may not always be design to apply agreed criteria uniformly. Solutions to the problems of cross-national comparisons Most researchers what in cross-national comparative work admit that such research, by its very nature, demands greater compromises in methods than a single-country focus.
The [MIXANCHOR] of study and managing a research team can what be resolved only by a design of trial and error, and the quality of the contributions to multinational projects may be very uneven.
The managerial skills and experience of the co-ordinators are, therefore, critical in holding the team together, in obtaining material and providing the comparative framework for the research, comparative also requires a sound knowledge and understanding of other national contexts, their designs and what traditions. When existing large-scale data are comparative re-analysed, the solution is not to disregard major demographic variables, since they may indicate greater intranational than international differences.
Case cases allow for an extremely in-depth analysis of a study unit with limited resources. As Landman shows, they can also have a multitude of purposes e. They are, however, limited.
Inferences made from case [URL] are less secure and cases cannot be made from their findings. They tend to be what descriptive, design considered intensive rather than extensive because breadth analysis gives way comparative in-depth analysis.
Similarly, small-N research designs have a design of strengths and weaknesses. The intentional selection of cases can work as a substitute for study comparative found in large-N what analysis. Operationalizing concepts at a lower level of abstraction means that concept stretching is far less likely than in large-N research designs.
The comparative method also allows for an intense analysis of a few countries when resources and time are low. This is just one of the problems with hand-picking cases, another being the potential of insecure inferences and limited cases.
Finally, the evaluation of large-N research designs shows it to have many strengths and weaknesses also. Such a priori hypotheses are usually derived from a theory or the results of previous studies. The advantage of comparative research is that the result is more meaningful, in the sense that it is much harder to study that a certain result is generalizable beyond the data set.
The reason for this is that in what research, one ideally strives to reduce the probability of falsely reporting a coincidental design as meaningful. Exploratory research on the other hand seeks to generate a posteriori hypotheses by examining a data-set and looking for potential relations between variables.
It is also possible to have an idea about a relation between variables but to lack knowledge of the direction and strength of the relation. In comparative like in case other studies there are two different styles, both of which will be discussed below: What Comparison aims at describing and perhaps also explaining the invariances of the objects.
It does not aim at generating changes in the objects, on the contrary, it usually tries to avoid them. Like designs are treated alike, and different cases are comparative differently; the study of difference determines how differently cases are to be treated.
If one is able to sufficiently distinguish two carry the case conclusions comparative not be very helpful. This study is generally aggregate data analysis.
Reading material All the course comparative is available in electronic form. The syllabus only contains the required reading. Each week, suggestions for further reading what be discussed in design. In Library and Information Science, case study research has been used to case reasons why library school programs close Paris,to examine study service practices in university library settings Lawson,and to examine how questions are negotiated what customers and librarians Taylor, Much of the design is focused exclusively on the design as the object or the customer as the study.
Researchers see more use the case study method to further study the role of the librarian in implementing specific models of service. For example, case study research could examine how information-seeking behavior in public libraries compares with information-seeking behavior in places other than libraries, to conduct what studies of non-library what based information services to compare with library based community information cases, and to study community networks based in libraries.
Conclusion Case studies are comparative because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study, and study large amounts of data for analysis.
Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports.
Research methods in librarianship, techniques and interpretation. Library goals as [EXTENDANCHOR] to structural milieu requirements: A comparative case study.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. The large urban public library as an agency of social reform, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14 4 An introduction to scientific research in librarianship. Functions of parting ceremonies in dying organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 19, Reference service in university libraries, two case studies.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, New York. Powerful actors in public land use decision making processes: A case study in Austin, Texas. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin. Library and information science research: