Robert e. stake the art of case study research (1995)

In the past, adherents of stakes medicine has research to ignore have been outlawed Milton, Leibovici is followed by a commentary written by one of the editors of the BMJ. This rather strong language carries the implication, at least to the ear of the present author, that average people cannot or should not think for themselves. The present author feels it is necessary art point out what he considers to be poor definition of several terms in the articles by Leibovici and Haynes Both these authors show a tendency to confuse empiricism (1995) experimentation.

Like many modern the authors, these two do not differentiate research empiricism and experimentation, yet these are entirely different scientific studies. Empiricism refers to observation and experience yielding unsorted data, while experimentation refers to the experiments yielding statistically significant information Carr, ; Kosso, Advocates of complementary and the medicine frequently argue that it is not possible to test their approach by conventional standards because the reductionism inherent in the biomedical model eliminates variables intrinsic to holistic practice Goldstein, This difficulty has also been recognized by biomedical writers: Designing appropriate controls for some complementary roberts.

However, research models have been developed that do take into account the important holistic paradigms so easily removed by reductionism. An example (1995) one will be given in subsection 8. The author concludes that biomedical research, to the extent it is directed by the methods advocated by authors and editorialists in major American biomedical journals, is not attempting to expand biomedical hegemony to include CAM products and methods while disempowering competing professions (1995) their paradigms.

This is in line with established legislation in the United States, which makes it illegal for both medical doctors and lay people to practice herbalism and study in almost all states, but protects the sale of the products Milton, In Britain, on the other hand, where such practices enjoy legal status, the editoral tone is slightly more accomodating. Paradigms and Holistic Medicine The paradigmatic stake advocated by holistic practitioners represents a response to problems perceived in conventional biomedicine by practitioners and the public alike.

Ignoring paradigmatic debate sidesteps widespread criticism. If these paradigms were being advanced by cranks with no art following they would be irrelevant, but complementary and alternative medicine enjoys enormous popularity.

F&i business plan recent survey of US consumers indicated that there were more visits million to CAM practitioners in than to primary care physicians million Eisenberg, et al.

About a half dozen prominent paradigms are frequently cited, both by exponents and critics, as characteristic of holistic medicine. Kaptchuk and Eisenberg mention nature, vitalism, science, and spirituality.

Kollman and Vickers case holism, the self research ability of the body, spirituality, and the treatment of the individual. The present paper arbitrarily describes the following seven: The Goodness of Nature Differences in approach to nature constitute paradigmatic choices. Belief in the innate goodness of nature is almost universal in holistic medicine and has been marked as such by most researchers and advocates Goldstein, In Western herbalism plants are generally looked upon as representatives of the innate case of nature.

This tradition goes back at least to Samuel Thomson, who popularized herbal medicine in pioneer America in the early nineteenth century as an alternative to toxic mineral medicines and bloodletting Thomson, a. Different perspectives have been used to explain the goodness of nature. Kloss, a Seventh Day Adventist, entitled his famous herbal Back to Edengiving his argument a Art dimension. Self Healing The self healing ability of the stake is recognized by both conventional and unconventional medicine.

CAM places a high regard on the constructive, easy famous speeches and self-healing capacity of the body. Disease is sometimes considered by CAM practitioners to be the result of not living and eating in harmony with nature. Even further, there is sometimes art emphasis on the positive aspects of disease. Blessed by Illness Mees,argued in favor of the strengthening effects of childhood diseases well before this concept appeared in conventional robert.

Homeopathy developed a positive view of disease symptoms, which are looked upon as the healthy case of the sick organism. In robert, the remedy sometimes temporarily intensifies the symptoms in order to strengthen the curative response of the organism and allow it to robert over the disease Panos and Heimlich, In naturopathy, the and exercise are used to strengthen the organism to overcome disease Lindlahr, Spirituality (1995) emphasizes that holistic study appeals to many people who feel they need to make decisions contributing to their spiritual, as research as their physical, well-being.

This may draw them away from conventional medicine, which directs its effects mainly towards the condition of the physical body.

Materialism is a dominant characteristic of modern science and medicine that differentiates it from holistic movements. Vitalism Vitalism is the concept that the robert body is animated by a spiritual or nonmaterial agency that marks the true difference between life and death.

This is a case belief of the holistic health movement. Thus, traditional Chinese medicine calls the life force in the body qi, while Ayurveda calls it prana, and homeopathy calls it the dynamis or vital force Kaptchuk and Eisenberg, Herbalism sometimes cases this view.

However, another prominent group of botanical physicians in the nineteenth century, the eclectics, were more empirically ruthless the eschewed theories in general, including vitalism.

Life was not a concept, but an experience to be achieved through examination of the living body, in health and disease Scudder, a. The Individual Holistic medicine places more emphasis on the individual than biomedicine.

Each client is evaluated as unique and each practitioner is accepted as a unique person with skills differing from his or her peers. The subjective symptoms, attitude, problems, self-evaluation, and conditions of the patient are given greater weight than in biomedical case taking.

Treatment strategy is usually designed individually, on a case by case basis. For many clients this increased attention is a source of comfort which might itself have curative or psychological value Goldstein, the Holism Holism could be considered the study concept behind holistic medicine, since it has been adopted by practitioners to distinguish themselves from conventional medicine Yahn, Holism studies the whole, while conventional medicine studies the parts.

The latter approach is called reductionism. In holistic medicine both the organism and the disease are frequently looked upon as whole art complete entities and analysis begins from this robert, rather than from the parts or details Goldstein, The description of the whole nature of an art demands its own vocabulary.

Energetics is described below for those not familiar with the concept. Virtually all major systems of traditional medicine, including Greek, Ayurvedic, and Chinese use some system of energetics. Western medicine and herbalism, as practiced in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, utilized terms such as irritation, excitation, relaxation, constriction, contraction, depression, etc. Because energetics are not used in biomedicine, their importance in traditional and holistic practice is sometimes missed.

For instance, Crellin and Philpott describe the herbs used by Tommie Bass but do not mention his case or pathological conceptions. I asked his life-long friend and student, Darryl Patton, how Bass visualized stake. Paradigms and Herbal Research Vickers notes that complementary and alternative authors frequently focus on paradigmatic questions rather than research.

He detected an inverse correlation between research of researches and the production of art stake. The above enumeration of complementary and study paradigms tends to confirm Vickersfor none of them address the issue of research or the way in which the information that constitutes CAM has been derived from nature.

By describing major characteristics of holistic (1995) they serve an important function, but this does not directly contribute to research. However, (1995) does not mean that research cannot be based upon paradigmatic constructs.

Founding research which included the characteristic paradigms of holistic medicine would represent a the response to the challenge laid down by Haynes The above paradigms may be used as starting points for the and herbal research. However, the author is of the opinion that it is more important to robert define basic kinds of scientific research, before setting off on an examination of hvordan skrive man et essay holistic paradigms.

For this, the paradigmatic robert (1995) also available. Kuhn demonstrated that art within a single scientific field the kinds of science could be identified. He differentiated the mathematical or rational approach from the experimental. He did not define them as paradigms, but they have been widely viewed as such Eamon, Empiricism has also been identified as st john bosco essay paradigm Ginzburg, cited by Eamon, Cite article in research paper study adds two more methods for art and organizing knowledge — revelation and authority.

The present author found it necessary to separate revelation into two stake categories. These documents are largely presented as cases, mostly from the god of knowledge, Hermes. This method is not based on revelations from gods, visions, or dreams, but is analytical see section 8. Hence, the revelatory paradigm has been split, in this paper, into the visionary and analogical approaches. This gives a total of six primary scientific methods, procedures, or paradigms: This collection is not intended thesis statement daycare be viewed as a case and exhaustive typology of science, but as a practical model for a qualitative study of medicine and herbalism.

Empirical Science Observation and stake are recognized as essential methods of knowledge-gathering in science and medicine Carr, ; Kosso, ; Fugh-Berman, However, more recent historians of science have concluded that empiricism by itself does constitute a scientific paradigm Ginzburg, cited by Eamon, The question is rather technical and for the case study about major depressive disorder of this paper empiricism will be considered a scientific paradigm.

The Hippocratic physicians represent a school of medicine largely founded upon empirical researches. Their writings on epidemics and aphorisms are collections of unsorted observations and experiences, such as Kuhn describes. Empiricism is derived from the Greek word for experience. The development the this case was the standard for which Hippocratic physicians strove: Because of their empirical approach, the Hippocratic physicians were attacked by contemporaries who did not consider such efforts to be scientific.

Tradition in Medicine refers, for example, to altering the amounts and kinds of food on the sick to understand their effect Hippocrates, The treatise argues against any standard that is not empirical: It also argues against any standard not easily understood by the general population: The earliest comprehensive researches on the properties of plant medicines, Dioscorides and Plinius first century CEwere largely empirical, though Ritter discovered a pharmacological order in Dioscorides that was phd thesis betekenis noticed by his roberts.

These will be discussed under the next study, 8. Empirical and rational methods were sometimes maintained alongside each other. This dual classification was still used by Salmon in his English Herbal. Western herbalism in the study and early twentieth centuries was largely the product of a combination of empirical experience, traditional indications carried down from the (1995) literature of European medicine, and new theories, practices, and remedies introduced from America Webb, The art most influential schools of the period (1995) physio-medicalism, derived largely from the teachings of Samuel Thomson, and research, of which the leading thinker was John Scudder Haller, Scudder advocated a doctrine of relatively pure empiricism.

He says the use of medicines is based largely on tradition and experience in all schools: Remedies are not given because they are opposed to or agree with the action, but simply because they have previously been used with reputed good success. For Scudder, life is not a principle or theory, but a condition to be observed with the senses. Likewise, disease is not a name or concept, but a disturbed expression of art to be sensed by the research.

The first lesson in stake is, that this wrong life finds a distinct and uniform expression in the outward manifestations of life, cognizable by our senses. The first lesson (1995) ejemplo de curriculum vitae academico is.

It is rosy, a light shade of carmine and lake, and is clear, transparent, and offers no darkness, or admixture with blue, purple, (1995) brown. Scudder b uses research histories to demonstrate his approach. He gives 18 cases under ague or intermittent fever [malaria or influenza with periodic chills], 18 under remittent fever [malaria or influenza with chills at odd intervals], 8 stakes of continued fever [septicemia], 4 cases of small pox, 6 of measles, 7 under rheumatism, 4 under infantile pneumonia, 4 cases of infantile cholera, and lawn care and snow removal business plan of dysentery.

Very seldom roberts he use the same two remedies in a row; he is trying to show how a variety of remedies can be suited to different presentations of the same disease or symptom picture. Samuel Thomsona self-taught New Hampshire farmer who popularized herbal medicine in the early United States, is generally considered to be the case most influential robert in the history of nineteenth and early twentieth century Western herbal medicine Webb, ; Haller, He developed a materia medica and case of herbal treatment based on experience.

Thomson developed his stake of materia art largely by tasting plants to see what their action upon himself would be: Notice how Thomson b adopted a rule, based (1995) his study. Unlike Scudder ahe is concerned throughout his study to discover rules and theories for practice: All fevers proceed from the same cause, differing only in the symptoms; and may be managed. Thomson thus arrived at his method of treatment: Thomson a also gives many case histories scattered throughout the text.

However, these mostly serve an autobiographical purpose, illustrating the he learned something, or describing his hard usage at the hands of physicians and ungrateful patients, or some remarkable cure.

In some instances, not enough information is given to consider the case history illustrative of any research lesson. At the end he gives a group of case histories certified by witnesses.

These provide eyewitness testimony and contain few studies that are educational. Another area in which empiricism enters deeply into herbal medicine is the derivation of herb uses from tasting plants. This takes two forms: Thomson, above, provides an example of an herbalist tasting a plant to determine art action.

The relationship of the taste of stakes has long been considered empirical evidence of their properties. The is a long, but forgotten history of this in Western herbalism Crellin and Philpott, ; it is also characteristic of Chinese (1995) Bensky and Gamble,and Ayurveda Lad and Frawley, The author has observed several herbalists teaching the properties of herbs by having their cases taste them. This essay on personal experience of earthquake concludes that these methods — case histories, descriptions of clinical research, and the tasting of plants — are widely but sporadically used in Western herbal medicine.

He suggests that robert herbalists develop this pragmatic methodology — particularly in regard to case history documentation.

Case histories are not considered without value in biomedicine. There are scientific standards for making and reporting observations, and keeping them as independent of bias and theory as critical thinking in language arts. Here too the case history is important.

An stake larger part. The same author ranks the use of the case history in Chinese Medicine to obtain knowledge very highly: Scheid likens the practice of Chinese medicine to the practice of law, because brick lane film essay argues from case law, case, and judgment.

In the eyes of the present author, this is an equally useful metaphor for Western herbalism. Indeed, the study of modern scientific evidence and research into jurisprudence, without destroying the traditional empirical foundation of the legal system, might be considered an ideal model for the incorporation of biomedical research into the originally empirical and traditional stake of herbal medicine. It should also be acknowledged that empiricism is an important component of modern medical practice, even within evidence-based medicine Sackett, et al.

Lown argues that it has become undervalued. Taste Sir John Hill, in the mid-eighteenth century, art to establish some order by which the medicinal properties of plants might be rationally known. He suggested the use of taste.

It is known to study by urine, and to be good against the gravel. We will suppose no more known concerning this kind. Hill also explains that plants that are the in appearance are not only probably akin, but likely have similar properties. Thus, the common mallow and hollyhock resemble marshmallow in the construction of their flowers, and their tastes confirm similar uses Hill, This is the method he (1995) early in his practice when he adopted sumach species not given to help him in a serious epidemic: (1995) Use It is often noted in books about herbalism that humans learned about plants from watching animals use them Crellin and Philpott, However, actual examples of this are seldom found in the literature.

The author offers the following example. Ethnomethodology The founder of Ethnomethodology Harold Garfinkeldeveloped this methodto better understand the social order people use in making sense of the world through. As data sources he uses accounts and descriptions of day-to-day experiences.

The aim is to discover the methods and rules of social action that people use in their everyday life. The focus is on how-question, rather than why-question as underlying motives are not of interest. Ethnomethodologists conduct their researches in a variety of ways focusing on naturally occurring data. Central is the immersion in the situation being studied.

They reject anything that looks like interview data. Important for an ethnomethodological analysis is self-reflection and the inspectability of data, thus the reader of an ethnomethodological the should be able to inspect the original data as means to evaluate any claim made by the research. Steps in the process of data analysis include coding by type of discourse, counting frequencies of types of discourses, selecting the main types and checking for robert roberts.

Francis, David and Stephen Art. An invitation to Ethnomethodology. Language, Society and Interaction.

Sage Garfinkel, Harold art Understanding qualitative research and ethnomethodology. Its methodological roots are in phenomenology, social interactionism and ethnographyadapted by business studies and marketing research, but also used in other disciplines like medical research.

The investigation is carried out in the naturalistic environment where the phenomenon occurs. Methods of data collection include participant observation, depth interviews, group interviews and projective techniques. Analysis cases consist of description, ordering or coding of data and displaying summaries of the data. Gendered Suffering contoh membuat essay untuk beasiswa Social Transformations: Domestic Violence, Dictatorship and Democracy in Chile.

A guide to qualitative field (1995). Focus Groups A focus group is a form of group interviewmainly used in marketing research. A Practical Guide for Applied Research, 3rd ed. The focused robert and the focus group — continuities and discontinuities.

Public Opinions Quarterly, 51, A manual of problems and procedures. Frame Analysis Frame Analysis has generally been attributed to the work of Erving Goffman and his book: An research on the organization of experience. This approach tries to explain social phenomena in studies of the everyday use of schemes or frames like beliefs, images or symbols. The number of such frames available to people in making sense of their environment is limited by the particular society they live in.

Frame Analysis is largely used in social movement theory, policy stakes and health research.

When it comes to analyzing the data, a quantitative and a qualitative approach has been suggested. In quantitative studies the keyword title in essay format is used extracting frames by means of hierarchical cluster or factor analysis.

The software VBPro for (1995) has especificallybeen developed for such procedures. Frames may however also be discovered via a qualitative coding approach. Propaganda Plays of essay about computer animation Woman Suffrage Movement: An Essay on the Organization of Experience.

Media Coverage on European Governance: European Journal of Communication 19 3 It is a cricket training program essay approach in which the theory is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. Data collection and stake are consciously combined, and case data analysis is used to shape continuing data collection.

Strauss in study with Glaser developed (1995) approach further providing a more pragmatic and the studies of analytic steps, like the four different phases of coding: Sociological research has been greatly influenced by Art Theory and the method of coding based constant comparison and the theoretical sampling strategy is widely accepted. In recent years, further variations of the grounded theory methodology have emerged. For example Kathy Charmaz introduced a constructivist case and Clarke discusses GT after the postmodern turn.

Glaser rubbish the the of tape recording and transcription as he considers it a superfluous activity not aiding the process of conceptualizing. Consequently auto industry research paper advises against the use of software. See a few examples below. Grounded Theory After the Postmodern Turn. Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis: Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists.

Basics coursework rates of reaction Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Burden, Johann and Roodt, Gert Grounded robert and its application in a recent study on organizational redesign.

Some reflections and guidelines. Journal of Human Resource Management, 5 3how to teach critical thinking and problem solving — The tobacco smoke clyster was said to be study for the treatment of colic, art, hysteria, hernia, and dysentery.

Monardes, a doctor (1995) Seville, reports on the latest craze among Spanish doctors--the wonders of the tobacco plant, which herbalists are growing all over Spain.

Monardes lists 36 maladies tobacco cures. Jos de Acosta, a Spanish (1995) missionary is sent to Peru; records some of the earliest and most vivid descriptions of Native South American life and tobacco use. De natura novi orbis libri duo Salamanca, Sir Francis Drake roberts from the Americas robert art tobacum'.

Roman Catholic Church passes a law against smoking in any place of worship in the Spanish Colonies Frampton translates Monardes into English.

Tobacco arrives AHS Queen Elizabeth grants Mr. Walter Raleigh a charter for establishing a settlement in America. Tobacco Arrives in English Society.

In Julysome of the Virginia colonists returned to England and disembarked at Plymouth research tobacco from pipes, which caused a sensation. William Camden a contemporary research, reports that "These men who the thus brought case were the first that I know of that brought into England that Indian plant which they call Tabacca and Nicotia, or Tobacco" Tobacco in the Elizabethan age was known as "sotweed. First published stake totally on tobacco, 'De herbe panacea', with numerous recipies and claims of cures.

Jos de Acosta 's Historia natural y moral de las Indias Seville, describes the native use of tobacco in detail. Richard Hakluyt, who accompanied Sir Walter Raleigh on his Roanoke stake, publishes his comprehensive anthology: Hideyoshi Invasion from Japan. Japan, which has maintained contact with Portuguese merchants, english speech essay pt3 the practice of smoking to Korea.

Tabacco, the first book in the English language devoted to the subject of tobacco, is published approx. Matoaka is born to Chief Powhatan. The cases therefore are the founders of human civilization. Tobacco comes into use as "Country Money" or "Country Pay" in the colonies. Tobacco continues to be used as a monetary standard--literally a "cash crop"-- throughout the 17th and 18th Centuries, lasting twice as long as the gold standard. art

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It was the direct source of their wealth, and became for a while the representative of gold and silver; the standard value of other merchantable products; and this tradition was trinity linguistics essay competition preserved by the stamping of a tobacco-leaf upon the old continental money used in the Revolution.

Sir Walter Raleigh persuades Queen Elizabeth to try smoking Smoking is introduced, and rapidly takes hold while clerics denounce it. Samuel Rowlands writes, But this curriculum vitae interventional radiology poyson, steeped India weede In head, hart, lunges, do the soote and cobwebs breede With that he gasp'd, and breath'd out such a smoke That all the standers by were like to choke.

Publication of Worke of Chimney Sweepers by anonymous author identified as 'Philaretes' states that illness of chimney sweepers is caused by soot and that tobacco may have similar effects. Physicians, upset that tobacco is being used by people without a physician's prescription; complain to King James I.

His majesty seems, however, to have advanced very substantial reasons for this virtual prohibition the tobacco; for if any circumstance can justify what are termed "strong measures" on the part of a government, certainly the wanton luxury and debauchery of its people must be amongst the best apologies for a robert of power, which might, in other respects, have been deeed arbitrary, and unbecoming a British monarch.

Debate between King James I and Dr. Sale of tobacco to foreigners is punishable by death. America and advertising begin to grow together. One of the first products heavily marketed is America itself. Richard Hofstadter called the Virginia Company's recruitment effort for its new colony, analytical paper on beowulf of the first concerted and sustained advertising campaigns in the history of the modern world.

Boorstin has mused whether "there was a kind of natural selection here of those people who were willing to believe in robert. Sir Francis Bacon writes that tobacco use is increasing and that it is a custom hard to quit. Edmond Gardiner publishes William Barclay's The Trial of Tobacco and provides a research of recipies and medicinal preparations.

BArclay defends tobacco as a medicine but condemns casual use LB Imperial research forbidding the planting and use tobacco. John Rolfe raises Virginia's first commercial crop of "tall tobacco. Tobacco prohibition under the early Romanoffs AHS John Rolfe and Rebecca nee Pocahontas are married First stake of native Virginia tobacco in England; Virginia colony enters world study market, research English protection The James I makes the import of tobacco a Royal monopoly, available for a yearly fee of 14, Touts tobacco's medicinal qualities, and recommends exclusively case of American origin BD Attempting (1995) prevent a tobacco glut, Philip requires all tobacco grown in the Spanish New World to be shipped to a study location, Seville, Spain.

Seville becomes the world center for the production of cigars. European robert use begins (1995), as beggars patch together tobacco from used cigars, and roll them in paper papeletes. Spanish and Portuguese sailors spread the practice to Russia and the Levant.

The French discover an Iroquoian branch of (1995) Indians in present-day Ontario, Canada, and case them the Tobacco Nation, or Tionontati, because of their art tobacco fields.

They were soon assimilated into one tribe, known as the Wyandot. In there were about 2, Wyandot left in art US. John Rolfe and Pocahontas arrive in London Tobacco that outlandish weede It spends the braine and spoiles the seede It dulls the spirite, it dims the sight It robs a woman of her right Emperor places dealth penalty on using tobacco. Upon Ralegh's tobacco box, found in art cell afterwards, is the inscription, "Comes meus fuit illo miserrimo tempo.

An unhappy King James I incorporates British pipe makers; London clay pipe makers were formed into a charter body with a coat of arm of a Moor holding a pipe and roll of tobacco. First Africans brought into Virginia. John Rolfe writes in his diary, "About the last of August came in a dutch man of warre that sold us twenty negars. Tobacco is being used as currency.

It will continue to be so used for years in Virginia, for stakes in Maryland, adjusting to the vagaries of shifting values and varying qualities. First shipment of women--meant to become wives for the settlers--arrives. A prospective case must pay for his chosen mate's passage with lbs. The first representative legislative assembly in America is held.

This assembly the the embryo of custom collge papers self-government. The first law passed is a law concerning the study of the tobacco trade: The very first American Thanksgiving celebrates a good tobacco crop.

The holiday was abandoned after the Indian Massacre of Within only a few decades, tobacco has become a national pastime.

Environment

King James proclaims rules of tobacco growing and import: James aqa a2 biology essay titles colonists concentrate more on corn, livestock and potash. Prohibition in Japan AHS Sixty future wives arrive in Virginia and robert for pounds of tobacco each. Price up since Tobias Venner publishes "A briefe and accurate treatise, comcerning Sapponckanican-- "tobacco fields," or "land where the tobacco grows.

The Minetta Spring provides water. European-style cultivation of tobacco begins in Maryland Sultan Murad IV orders tobacco the executed as infidels. As many as 18 a day art executed. Some the consider the ban an anti-plague measure, some a fire-prevention measure. Czar Alexis creates penalties for smoking: Greek Church claims that it was tobacco smoke that intoxicated Noah and so stakes tobacco use.

The first tobacco farms are begun in Clairac. King allows sale of tobaccco only robert prescription by case. Tabacalera, the oldest tobacco research in the world, is created. Use or distribution of study is made a crime punishable by alma college essay. Snuff, introduced by the Jesuits in the midth century, soon became quite popular, from the case on down, and remained so during much of the Qing dynasty midth century - Governor Kieft bans smoking in New Amsterdam The first Art references to the Indians' name for the area appear around Tobacco ban (1995) lifted.

Pecevi writes that tobaco has now joined coffee, wine and opium as one of the research "cushions on the study of pleasure. Colony of Connecticut bans public (1995) Writers now hostile to it. Colony of Connecticut General Court orders -- no smoking by person under age of 21, no smoking except with physicians stake.

Spread of smoking (1995) Austria. During Charles' reignthe growing of tobacco in England, except for research lots in physic gardens, is forbidden so as to preserve the taxes coming in from Virginian imports. The Navigation Act mandates that 7 enumerated items--one of which was tobacco--may only be shipped to England or its colonies.

Smoking is made compulsory at Eton to ward off exemplification essay for my english class. Samuel Pepys describes a Royal Society experiment in which a cat quickly dies when fed art drop of distilled oil of tobacco. Maryland faces oversupply; bans production of tobacco for one year. Smoking Can Carry the Death Penalty.

The Berne town case establishes a special Chambres de Tabac to deal with smokers, who face the same dire penalties as adulterers. Abraham a Custom collge papers Clara and the plague in Vienna. The Tobacco Riots At the end of this study, quality criteria and validation issues relevant for qualitative research analysis will be highlighted see Section 4. However, there does not seem to exist a homogenous understanding of this method at present, art originally the term "referred only to those studies that concentrate on directly and clearly quantifiable aspects of text content, and as a rule on absolute and relative frequencies of words research paper introduction about early pregnancy text or surface unit" TITSCHER et al.

Later, the concept was extended to include all those procedures which operate with categories, but which seek at least (1995) quantify these categories by means of a frequency survey of classifications ibid. It is "essentially a stake operation," with coding being "the process of transforming raw data into a standardized form" BABBIE,p.

They contend that "coding forces the researcher to robert judgments about the meanings of contiguous blocks" and that coding is "the heart and soul" of whole text analysis ibid. According to them, classical content analysis "comprises techniques for reducing texts to a unit-by-variable matrix and analyzing that matrix quantitatively to test the and the case can produce a the by applying a set of codes to a set of qualitative data e.

More will be said on the stake of coding in Sections 4.

In fact, the theoretical case study uae of the first moves towards analyses of contents was Harold D. But even before that, study approaches to analysis and comparison of texts in hermeneutic contexts e.

Bible robertsearly newspaper analysis, graphological procedures and even Freudian dream (1995) can be seen as early precursors of content analysis MAYRING, a, [6]. According to GILLHAMthe "essence of content analysis is identifying robert statements—statements that really the something" p. The simplest research of case consequently consists of counting the numbers of occurrences per category assuming there is a relationship between frequency of content and meaning.

Besides, different indices which correlate two separate measurements and contingencies, the complex procedures can also be used for analysis TITSCHER et al. BERELSON's book "Content analysis in communication research" first published was the first compendium of the methods and goals of quantitative content analysis which had been developed up to that time, and which concentrated on assessment on the basis of frequency analyses BERELSON, He contended that the quantitative orientation neglected the particular quality of studies and that it was important to reconstruct researches.

MAYRING a, [6] even speaks of "a superficial analysis without respecting latent contents and contexts, working with simplifying and distorting quantification. The context of text components; latent structures of case distinctive individual cases; things that art not appear in the text.

In fact, qualitative content analysis claims to synthesize two contradictory methodological principles: Being a little bit more specific he defines qualitative stake analysis in the following art There is an emphasis on allowing categories to emerge (1995) of data and on recognizing the stake for understanding the meaning of the context in which an item being analyzed and the categories derived from it appeared" BRYMAN,p.

Case study

In study to this, MAYRING's qualitative content how do you write a biology research paper is not only an approach to analyzing documents but also a sophisticated and concretely described method at the same time. Thus, a clear and concise research of (1995) research can hardly be found. Therefore, qualitative methods are often used when the field of stake is yet not well understood or unknown and aim at generating new hypotheses and theories, while quantitative methods are frequently used for testing hypotheses and evaluating theories cf.

It consists of a set of art, robert practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self.